Complementarity

Dualism

Gods/desses - animate powers in nature as a part of the experience of different phenomena; mythopoetical science is the principle of constant creation, it is living, there are many gods who are a part of a single nature; complementarity

Writing-Egypt-1900 B.C.E.; also the use of numbers, which also developed in Mesopotamia and Babylon; complementarity

Chthonic Mythopoetic Tradition - earth-centered, goddess traditions; pre-literate, pre-agricultural; logic of complementarity

Homeric Mythopoetic Tradition - Indo-Aryan, patriarchal traditions; logic of dualism; moira (fate)-Greek-there is an intrinsic order that not even the gods can change

Thales - 6th century B.C.E.; structure of explanation (still used today) based on water as the underlying unity (arche; explanans), based on the observations that it appears in all the possible forms of matter, gas, liquid, and solid (explanandum), and believes that water is full of "gods"; mythopoetical; the laws of nature are legislated by the gods; some geometrical generalizations; complementarity

Anaximander - 611-545 B.C.E.; the source of all things is purely conceptual; the universe will never go away; the aperion is "the unlimited" and can be known by reason, solely by the mind (logos), and this is the principle of the world and the cause of eternal motion; dualistic; the truth of things is determined by mathematical ratios; numbers explain reality; the apeiron has the qualities of a god above the world; complementarity

Pythagoras born sometime between 569-572 B.C.E.; influence 580-500 B.C.E.; religious philosophy infused with mathematics; math unlocks the key to nature and to the divine; universe is a balanced unit of opposites with a single harmonizing agent; transmigration of souls & incarnations; soul has own identity; like a secret society/religion; purify universe by reason; major complementarity

Anaximenes - 499 B.C.E.; Anaximander's pupil; air is the underlying unity and is necessary for life; first experiment which shows that the cause of change can be observed and thus verified

Heraclitus - coins logos ("I'll use logos to give you a logos of logos," which means "I'll use reason to give you an account of order")

Xenophanes - questioned gods and traditional religion and critiqued them as anthropomorphic; uses logos to stand over religion; beginning of religion/rational dualism

Parmenides - 515 B.C.E.; seeming vs. being; what is, is; what is not, is not; does what is not exist?; difference in the sense world is illusion; sharp dualism-only reason knows what is; everything is one being; there is no time or change because nothing separates moments; leads to complete failure of explanation

Empedocles - died 434 B.C.E.; "the divine is to be found in the purely physical" (Alioto 34) notion that there are 4 elements (earth, air, fire, & water) that randomly mix to create matter and what can survive do (foreshadows Darwin and survival of the fittest), but doesn't explain how or why the elements mix; complementarity

Anaxagoras - there are infinite number of elements ("seeds") in everything and what seed predominates determines what the matter is, for example, hair has every element of everything in it, but hair "seeds" are predominate in the hair which makes it hair, but this is the fallacy of circularity, since there is no explanans/explanandum difference

Leucippus - 450 B.C.E.; atomism-atoms make up the objects of sense data; space must exist because it has to; motion is inherent to matter; the mind is made of matter, and a human is a microcosm of the universe; reality includes what is, what is not but doesn't exist, nothing that still exists as a something (void), and is a middle-ground between Parmenides and Anaxagoras; leads to materialism which leads to causality which leads to determinism which leads to the identity crisis that we are all a bunch of dead stuff bumping around; not complementarity

Sophism - started around 450 B.C.E.; use reason to look at nature and apply it to human nature; transcends individual religion and culture; later Sophism says that all is illusion and convention, cultural relativism; no universals; leads to social and moral chaos; dualism

Socrates - killed in 399 B.C.E. for "corrupting the youth" as a result of the return to "old time religion" which stemmed from the Sophist relativist chaos; decline of natural science and natural philosophy; height of dualism; eventually shifts to a compromise and more toward complementarity to solve the political problems as cultural & other differences are different applications of universal ideals & values

Plato - 428-347 B.C.E.; analogy (relationships); analogy of the line (hierarchy of forms, mathematicals, objects, and shadows, the 2 former as a part of the mind and the 2 latter in the sensory realm); Plato's homework problem; objects are to shadows as math is to objects as definitions are to applications and what can be observed in nature; can know math and objects and their relationship without reducing either; mind/body distinction; complementarity

Hippocrates - 460-379 B.C.E.; Hippocratic oath; physiology; 4 elements (blood-heart-air-spring; yellow bile-liver-summer-fire; black bile-spleen-earth-autumn; phlegm-brain-water-winter) & hot, dry, cold, moist; belief in natural causes, i.e. "epilepsy is called divine simply because man cannot comprehend its nature" (Alioto 54); enthusiasm; complementarity

Eudoxus - born 391 B.C.E.; theories of magnitude and exhaustion

Aristotle - died 322 B.C.E.; form over matter; the form is in the matter, within the individual; syllogism & formal logic; realist; 4 causes (material-what it's made of, formal-what form/shape it is, efficient-how it is made, final-goal or end or purpose); potential vs. actual; look at history to tell us how things ought to be (naturalistic fallacy); entelechies-somehow something knows what to do but we can't figure out how; epistemological daisy; humans are social & political animals; empiricism; sensory evidence; numbers are pure objects of thought; natural places and states; "the entire edifice of rational science is built upon a faith that there is a constancy in nature that conforms to the use of logical analysis" (Alioto 62); pure thought is God and is a final cause, but "God is totally removed from the world and, in effect, ignorant of it" (Alioto 68); dualism

Alexander's Macedonian Empire - died 323 B.C.E.; cultural melting pots; largest empire of its time; specialization of science; thriving Jewish community present; Hebrew Bible (especially Wisdom of Solomon) shows the world as orderly; (parallels later views and influence of Islamic religious beliefs); complementarity

Euclid - Elements around 300 B.C.E.; geometry

Mysticism - you are a divine spark of God but the world is corrupt and math is used to purify the unhappy material body and to unite with the Divine; complementarity

Epicurus - atomism; way of coping in the Alexandrian Empire

Herophilus & Erasistratus - 300 & 280 B.C.E., respectively; anatomists

Mystery Religions - arise during time of the Empire; 2 types:

type 1: in Christianity's early form it is a mystery religion, complementarity and countercultural (Eve discovered reason); in 315 C.E. Christianity was made the official religion of the Roman Empire by Constantine, this stemmed from a literate agrarian society;

type 2: support project of natural philosophy & science, figure out nature to get closer to God, neoplatonists, cognitive and experiential understanding, from preliterate societies

Philo - 1st century C.E.; merged Greek and Jewish thoughts; complementarity

Ptolemy - 2nd century C.E.; geo-centered universe, question as to whether this is a map (instrumentalist) or how it really is (realist); physics is said to be a "likely story" by Plato; his model liked by Catholics

Hypatia - murdered in 415 C.E. by Christians, though was sympathetic to Christians; martyr; mathematician; neoplatonist; a woman; complementarity

Cyril - 375-444 C.E.; Christian theologian in Alexandria whose counterparts had Hypatia murdered and the library burnt

John Philoponus - 6th century C.E.; neoplatonist; Christian; Genesis is not geology but is directed toward knowledge of God; complementarity

Christian Dark Ages - 415-1100 C.E.; fideism-only need to know what faith teaches; faithreason dualism; reason is necessary for theological argument if nothing else, which starts to move in a complementarity direction

Albert the Great - Aquinas's teacher; alchemy-transformation of spirituality and material, your spirituality must be changed in order to be able to change the matter; "magic" based on natural causes; problem that people may try to "play God;" complementarity;

Thomas Aquinas - hierarchy of beings: God/pure form/actuality, angels, humans (rational) matter/form; actualization is fulfillment of potential; use science to get closer to the creator of the natural order; love drives us as humans to the Creator; rejection of void on theological and empirical grounds; contribution toward frame of reference; complementarity

St. Francis - 1181-1226 C.E.; knowing physical order of world allows perception of the Creator's activity; complementarity Franciscans - laboratorium (labor plus prayer); complementarity; protest against Catholicism; science a firm of religious contemplation; by 1385 C.E. laid foundations of Galileo's physics; stressed logical consistency over if their theories actually explained anything as opposed to preferring a complete but inconsistent system; complementarity

Robert Grosseteste - 1175-1253 C.E.; resolves use of abstract theoretical and mathematical terms to explain sensory data

Islamic Science - 12th century C.E.; the Koran does not address questions of the origin of the world but asserts the unity of God; religious truth and philosophical/scientific truth cohere; also a factor of the Renaissance in the 15th century; complementarity

Roger Bacon - 1214-1294 C.E.; utility of knowledge; man's control of nature; use math to understand the nature God created; optics; complementarity

John Duns Scotus - 1266-1308 C.E.; to speak of God's existence is beyond human reason; reason cannot escape the physical; absolute freedom of God; God accepted by faith; opposes Aquinas; dualism

Condemnation of Pope John XXI - 1277 C.E.; philosophers were teaching abominable ideas in the eyes of the church, such as that God couldn't make several worlds, produce something new, create a vacuum, & imposed limits on God's absolute power, including the Eucharist; caused doubt to creep into normal science; complementarity (in its effects)

William of Ockham - 1284-1350 C.E.; Ockham's Razor; the simplest explanation is the best and closest to the Truth; Averroist; Franciscan; "skeptical of human knowledge which transcended sensible cognition" (Alioto 149); universals are just human abstractions; dualism

3) complementarity - Francis, Aquinas

<-- Middle Ages - 3 prominent views --

1) doctrine of two-fold truth (religion and science are like apples and oranges and have nothing to say to or about each other; Averroes prefigured this);

2) philosophy & science are the handmaiden of religion (dualism); theology drives science

Mertonians - mid-1300's C.E.;

mean speed theorem (law of uniformly accelerated free fall), this plus Oresme's geometrical proof lead to and were empiricised by Galileo, though Oresme rejected his mathematical calculations showing the Earth could fully rotate by faith (complementarity); logicians; did not think that mathematics lead to the fabric of nature

Renaissance - 15th century C.E.; church backs scientific knowledge and natural science; resurgence of mysticism; influx of Islamic religious ideas; complementarity

Copernicus - 1473-1543 C.E.; heliocentric; simpler than Ptolemy's calculations; realist according to Aristotle but instrumentalist model-good for calendars; seen as anti-Catholic (for Catholics, the science/religion conflicts lie in interpretation); complementarity (neo-Pythagorean conviction that the Sun was the premier emblem of the Divine, and hence should center the Universe).

Galileo - 1564-1642 C.E.; motion is the natural state of things; completeness logical consistency; influenced by Plato; starts with mathematical ideals to make predictions and experiments follow the theory mettled in theology-nature never transcends the limit of natural law and are true whether or not understood by men; God is revealed in both nature and Scripture and is metaphorical; was seen as upholding erroneous beliefs because sided with Copernicus, who did not go along with the Aristotelian beliefs of the church; complementarity (for Galileo, though Church opposed him) [Ess - I would have said 2-fold truth]

Bruno - died in 1600 C.E.; realism; infinite universe and infinite God; complementarity

Johannes Kepler - 1571-1620 C.E.; planets do not move in a spherical orbit; student of Tycho, who died in 1601 C.E.; neopythagorean-mind of God can be grasped by human reason; God wouldn't create the universe clumsily, data underdetermines models, law of motion-each planet revolves around the sun in an ellipse; inverse square law-proportion between the distance of the sun and its speed (closer to sun moves faster & vise versa); proportion between distance and orbital motion (time of orbit squared equals distance traveled cubed); complementarity

Millenarian - Protestant Reformation affiliate (1620's C.E.); social reform; mystical elements; liberate humans from effects of original sin/fall from grace; complementarity

Descartes - 1596-1650 C.E.; 3-dimensional Cartesian coordinates; revived atomism; focus on material; if math works it is because we impose it on the material world; "father of modern philosophy;" God gave certain, constant motion to the universe; "I think therefore I am;" removed God from theoretical science; radical mind/body dualism

Francis Bacon - 1620 C.E.; "de novo" utility; Anglo-American culture value utility over contemplation; practical application of natural sciences; use science to master nature; allied with Protestant Reformation; elitist and masculine gender bias; dualism

Sir Isaac Newton - 1641-1727 C.E.; force of attraction: (f)=((M1xM2)/d squared)(G) (mass one times mass two all over distance between the two masses squared all times the gravitational constant); no more God as first and final cause; positivism; gravity is force acting at a distance; mechanical pus-pull causality; accused of introducing occult forces into science; instrumentalist; uncomfortable with God not being in the physical world; absolute space and absolute time which is God's frame of reference, but no empirical evidence for such ("God's Sensorium"; the mind of God contains the universe; complementarity

Hobbes) Locke - 1688 C.E.; Locke father of Anglo-American modern empiricism-works from sense data up; mind is tabula rasa which is shaped by sense data; any term, idea, or concept has meaning only if it is rooted in the observable; Hobbes denied the immortal soul; dualism

David Hume - 1711-1776 C.E.; no causality because it is not observable; takes empiricism to its logical extreme; undermines Newtonian science; challenges absolute time and space; cause-sufficient condition whose presence will necessarily result in an effect universally; destroys self (self is some kind of timeless identity that is consistent and is an agent of choice and responsibility) by eliminating choice and because the self is not observable; dualism

Immanuel Kant - 1724-1804 C.E.; works from theory down; we create our experience cognitively; there must be a bundler to the bundle of impressions that Hume says is all we are; we have a subjective experience of time and the mind is the source of these frameworks, which are built-in; eradicated rational proofs of God, but also said God cannot be disproved by reason; complementarity [CE]

Charles Darwin - 1809 C.E. (born); theory of evolution; natural selection; dualism

Positivism - scientific knowledge is the only valid form of knowledge; a.k.a. realism; dualism; the opposite end of the spectrum is social constructivism (relativism; post-modernism) and a middle ground is instrumentalism (Popper begins to move toward a middle ground with his falsification vs. verification, but is not an instrumentalist)

Popper - counters positivism, naïve empiricism with falsification

Erwin Schrodinger - 1926 C.E.; Schrodinger wave equation of radiation as a wave

Heisenberg - uncertainty principle-can't know motion and position at the same time-once you measure a location you stop the object; La Place-determinism-if you could take a snapshot of the universe in 1 instant in time and know the location and velocity you could predict the future

Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics

Bohr - non-local reality; quantum mechanics

Einstein - 1915-theory of general relativity; reduces gravity to acceleration; framework of reference; mass causes distortion in the space/time continuum; did not like standing probability waves associated with quantum mechanics; local reality; didn't like the big bang theory that was predicted by his own theory, but later said his cosmological constant was his biggest mistake; realist; complementarity

Le Maitre - Catholic priest who does Einstein's math that confirms the big bang and thus lend it the church's support; complementarity

EPR Paradox - 1935 C.E.; Einstein, Podolski, Rosen-twin atoms when one atom has chosen to assume a state (or forced to) does not mean that the other atom must also assume that state-in support of local reality

Bell - his theorem allows the development of an experiment to decide between Bohr & Einstein; quantum mechanics: Bohr turned out to be right

Big Bang - Christians and creationists use this as a support of the Genesis account of a moment of creation; complementarity

Hubble - Doppler Effect/red shift; universe is expanding; supports big bang; complementarity

Fred Hoyle - challenged the big bang theory with the steady state theory; continuous creation of material in the universe that fill in the gaps of expansion

Bob Dickie - detected background radiation that is the signature of the big bang that is the signature of the moment of creation; complementarity

George Smoot/COBE - detected temperature differences in the universe that support the big bang that is the signature of the moment of creation; complementarity

Hawking - studied the singularity of the big bang via relativity; dualism

Post-Modernism - social changes after Kant are post-modernism, new age, rising interest in Eastern Religions, renewed dialogue between religion and science; trend toward complementarity --

...though mass culture in America is still largely positivist/dualist